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The Franco-americans of New England a History (Armand Chartier) Book Review

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Franco American literature is a body of piece of work, in English language and French, by French-Canadian American authors "who were born in New England...born in Canada, [and] spent most of their lives in New England...[, or] those who only traveled through New England and wrote of their experiences."[1] "Franco-American literature" notwithstanding, as a term, has also been characterized by novels written by the Neat Lakes Region diaspora also.[ii] [three] [4] : 103 In a broader sense the term is also used as a handle for those writers of Cajun or French descent, exterior of the Quebec émigré literary tradition.[5]

Written in English as well as examples of Quebec and New England French, Franco-American literature and its associated literary and cultural movement represent an extension of La Survivance and Quebec literature among the French-Canadian diaspora in the New England region of the United states. In this literature, folklore, societal values and expressions of otherism are prominent motifs. While some literary figures, especially those of the Late 20th century Revival, sought to capture their own way of life within Yankee social club, many earlier novels placed emphasis on the responsibilities of industry and craft, besides as fictionalized figures within Franco society.[vi]

History [edit]

Exiles and The Great Migration [edit]

The title page of the offset edition of Honoré Beaugrand'due south Jeanne La Fileuse: Episode de l'Emigration Franco-Canadienne aux États-Unis, widely considered to be the offset notable novel in Franco-American literature[4] : 86 [7] [8]

The earliest forms of Franco American literature began with its journalists. In 1839 Ludger Duvernay published Le Patriote Canadien, every bit a political exile in Burlington, Vermont, to support the Patriote move in neighboring Canada.[ix] Notwithstanding, it would not be until the elevation of the Great Migration that one such journalist, Honoré Beaugrand would publish what is widely considered the beginning Franco American novel, Jeanne la Fileuse ("Jeanne the Spinner").[iv] [10] : 34 [eleven] After stints as a journalist in St. Louis and New Orleans, Beaugrand founded La République in Fall River in 1875, past that time already a prominent effigy in the French-Canadian cultural societies of that metropolis.[12] Sometime around 1877 he published Jeanne la Fileuse ("Jeanne the Spinner") as a serial novel (or feuilleton) in his weekly newspaper.[thirteen] Fifty-fifty among many other accomplishments, including writing down the French-Canadian folk legend of La Chasse-galerie, and his Montréal mayoralty, the Lexicon of Canadian Biography has described Beaugrand's novel as "his most important piece of work". A social novel, information technology documented, in a secular tone, the "Yard Migration" from Quebec and living conditions of those who lived in the industrial cities of New England, depicting assimilation through its protagonist family attaining a certain abundance in u.s..[12] [14] : 46 In many ways the novel was also a censure of the economics of Canada, whose authorities Beaugrand regarded every bit apathetic to the causes of agriculture and industry, unnecessarily creating conditions which led to the migration to New England.[15] The novel enjoyed success on both sides of the border and was republished as a book by Beaugrand in 1878 before being reprinted serially in Montreal's La Patrie in 1880, seeing another reprint as a book past their own press in 1888.[16]

Another of the earliest examples of Franco-American writing that meets the definition equally American in subject, but Canadian in origins, was Un revenant, épisode de la Guerre de Sécession aux États-Unis ("A Ghost, Episode of the State of war of Secession in the United states"). Although unremarkable in its writing style, Rémi Tremblay'south autobiographical novel represents a unique business relationship of the American Civil War every bit seen through the eyes of a Québécois foreign national, enlisted in the Spousal relationship Regular army.[17]

Feuilleton era [edit]

Past the stop of the 19th century, French-language newspapers abounded in New England, and in their pages works of fiction were be published in installments equally series novels. The term feuilleton, though more broadly used to describe a woman'due south section or supplementary column in French-language newspapers with non-political news, became synonymous with this type of fiction in the context Franco-American newspapers.[18] [xix]

Rencontres et entretiens ("Meetings and Interviews") past Adélard Lambert contained vignettes of New England Franco-Americana, but despite its format was published as a book rather than initially as a feuilleton [20] : 244

What began with the first publishing of Jeanne de Fileuse before long became a trend every bit other novels (romans) would be published every bit feuilletons, in installments over weeks or months, with the most pop reprinted as books, ofttimes by the same press. I of the start woman to publish a feuilleton in the genre was Anna-Marie Duval-Thibault, whose novel Les Deux Testaments was structured as a French soap opera, only sought to capture the customs of the New World. Duval-Thibault would publish the feuilleton in her husband'south Fall River newspaper L'Independente in 1888, noting in the paper'due south preface that the novel was inspired by a desire to dissimilarity "the pens of French writers [which] offering united states a picture show of different customs unknown to most of our readers. When we are told about the great Parisian world, the life of the nobles or the tricksters of European capitals, nosotros tin can barely grasp all the nuances and understand all the motives of these bogus beings. In Les Deux Testaments, on the contrary, we only run into scenes from Canadian life; it is with u.s., with all that this work contains meaning and memories".[21] [a] While this passage mentions "Canadian life" this, in part, refers to the diaspora in the The states, as Duvay-Thibault herself had lived exterior Canada since the age of three.[22] [23]

Among the best known of these early writers was one Louis Tesson, himself a paper publisher, who would go along to write three novels Le Sang Noir ("The Black Claret"), Une idylle acadienne ("An Acadian Idyll"), and Un Roman Sans Amour ("A Novel Without Beloved") in the 1890s, published in Lewiston, Maine's Le Messager.[24] : 312 More famously Tesson would develop methods to broaden his audition by educating the community'southward illiterate using, le methode Tesson, a phonetic approach.[25]

Interwar menstruation [edit]

The starting time edition of Canuck (1936) past Camille Lessard, printed in book class by the newspaper, Lewiston'due south Le Messager, where it was first published every bit a feuilleton; first edition of The Delusson Family (1939) past Jacques Ducharme

The era between the two World Wars was notable not solely for its literature but also in its criticism thereof. With the support of the Université Laval, in 1946 Sister Mary-Carmel Therriault wrote the first comprehensive history of Franco American literature, too as related pieces including the history of New England French, its institutions, journals, publishers, poetry, biographies and folklore. Therriault'south account however was non ane of praise, and her history regarded the genre as a nascent literary move by that time— an adjunct of Quebec literature defective whatever solitary masterpiece.[26]

By this time, there was increasing support for this diaspora community from those in Quebec. Although some had returned by so, in that location was an increasing representation both of Franco-American leaders of the church, and the press, in the bodies of Canadian Francophone institutions. I of the most prominent early examples was the Second Congress on the French Language in Canada, which included a committee for measures that could exist taken to preserve La Survivance and the bilingual institutions of New England French.[27]

At the end of the Second Congress, there was a proposal to create 12 regional committees in New England, to coordinate the best way to proceed the culture alive, and maintain commutation with Quebec to maintain the French linguistic communication and La Survivance as Franco-Americans. This endeavour was documented in a large tome chosen La Croisade Franco-Américaine ("The Franco-American Crusade") published at the finish of the Congress with numerous proposals, poetry, and histories of the French-Canadians who had long embraced the identity of New Englanders.[28]

One of the all-time known novels of the period would Canuck by Camille Lessard-Bissonette. Written in feuilleton course in 1936 for the French newspaper Le Messager of Lewiston, Maine and set in Lowell, Massachusetts, at the fourth dimension of its publication, its author managed the newspaper's women's department "Chez-Nous".[10] : 208 The feuilleton was subsequently published equally a single book and was so successful that a newspaper in Lawrence, Massachusetts, reprinted it the following yr. The novel has been described as having a key historical, sociological, and literary value.[vii] : 282

Embrace of the original edition of Sanatorium, 1938, by Dr. Paul DuFault

Another case of the period that merited mention was Sanitorium by Dr. Paul Dufault. A fictionalized account of his own experiences, the novel, ready in Rutland Land Sanatorium in Rutland, Massachusetts, was described in Montreal's Le Jour equally a "roman médical" (medical novel), the first of its kind to come out of the Franco-American diaspora, which would after find echos in this theme in novels like Robert Cormier'southward I Am the Cheese. However, in contrast to psychological institutions, Sanatorium finds protagonists in patients in a tuberculosis ward, a subject that its writer knew well as a medical medico, abet, and former patient of the illness himself.[29] [30] Working at the first land sanatorium established solely for the purpose of treating the disease, and as the but Québécois fellow member of its medical staff, he would write in English language for the New England Journal of Medicine, and published the French-language novel at his own expense as a manner to draw attention to the scourge both in the States and the Provinces.[31] Besides its discipline matter and setting, the novel is also unique in that its protagonist, Dr. Lanoie, in his dialogue, reflects on the issues of social questions in both Quebec and the United States, describing the piece of work of medicine every bit literally and metaphorically "fifty'œuvre de reconstruction".[two] [32]

In the years after Canuck, a shift began to take place toward press novels in English, and indeed even with greater institutional support of French, a period of about 50 years commenced where subsequent novels were written entirely in English.[33] Some exceptions to this, like Sanatorium in 1938, and Les Enfances de Fanny by Louis Dantin, practise exist, but both volumes represented a departure from émigré literature. Both works were printed in Quebec and intended for audiences in the provinces and in the states. Dantin himself, though identified with collections of Franco-American poetry, famously regarded himself as a Quebec literary effigy, and rejected the thought of Franco American literature as a genre. This novel, posthumously published in 1951, was thoroughly American in subject, reflecting his own social and cultural integration living in Boston even as he connected to publish out of Canadian printing houses.[34] His audience too was originally American in telescopic, equally he had initially planned to publish the novel equally a feuilleton in a Boston Haitian-American paper, post-obit the institution of a committee of Francophones betwixt Canada and the island nation. Dantin nevertheless saw the novel equally too controversial for the time, equally its subject matter concerned a black adult female from the South who settles in Roxbury and falls in love with a young Frenchman who she works for equally a housekeeper. Dantin would as well include a number of references to specific blackness nationalist movements which existed at the time, however felt the interracial romance was also controversial for either Haitian or a Franco-American audiences at that time. The book fits in a uniquely American novel written thematically, written in the French language by an author who considered himself an outsider to America'southward Yankee society.[1]

Unfortunately the 2nd World State of war and changes in mass media, every bit well equally the eventual Repose Revolution overshadowed American efforts in French-linguistic communication preservation. While Vivian Parson's Lucien would precede Jacques Ducharme'south The Delusson Family by months, past the New England definition, the latter would be the first in Franco American literature to exist both nationally distributed and written in English.[35] Its author's Franco history book Shadows of the Trees was also, controversially, written in English language, something that became commonplace in the next generation which sought to reconcile their American identities. Written in a screw narrative structure, The Delusson Family followed a Quebec family unit as they moved to Holyoke and their stories in adapting to a predominantly Irish and Yankee English guild. Both fellow Franco-American author Rosaire Dion-Lévesque [fr] and Kerouac biographer Maurice Poteet, would later on cite The Delusson Family unit every bit a probable influence of Jack Kerouac's debut novel The Town and the Metropolis. Though never explicitly confirmed, Poteet would note– "[t]he influence of Jacques Ducharme'southward novel, The Delusson Family, is however less hypothetical. In fact, The Boondocks and the City can exist read as its extension, every bit a variant of the same genre. Although the daily routine of the Delussons distinguish this story from the climate of anguish and alienation that reigns among the Martins of Kerouac, certain elements of Ducharme's novel suggest that it may have inspired Kerouac."[36] [b] The comparison between Ducharme and Kerouac's protagonist families was hit enough that Kerouac biographer Barry Miles would besides cite Poteet'due south comparison in his own work. Kerouac however would choose to explore the bohemian dynamic of one of his protagonists far more than the American influence constitute in Ducharme's, setting the tone for the next generation of Franco American authors later the 2d World State of war.[37]

Third generation and assimilation [edit]

By the end of the Second World State of war, a number of social factors had disrupted Franco-American life, and ergo its literature. Families as a unit saw greater dysfunction during the war, and by the end of the 1940s, saw divorces in two/3 of those whose men returned from the war, something previously almost unprecedented in Franco-American marriages. This followed greater trends in apostasy and intermarriage with a rejection of the customs's values, as well as an comprehend of Anglicized names equally White Americans.[38] A period of monolinguism emerged; while New England French endured in the regional poetry of the era,[39] the well-nigh successful Franco American novels were entirely in English and generally stood as rejections of la survivance, emphasizing a traumatic postwar acculturation.[33]

In his treatise on Franco-American literature, Armand Chartier, an ethnic literature scholar, described Jean-Louis "Jack" Kerouac as having a "tragically divided cultural identity", and described his most explicitly Franco-American works as The Town and the City (1950), Doctor Sax (1959), Visions of Gerard (1963), and Satori in Paris (1966).[2] : 28–29 Indeed, while Kerouac has been described as the nearly famous Franco-American author by some, during his lifetime he underwent a prolonged alienation betwixt his success and his cocky-identified ethnic roots.[40] Although he would become identified with the "Beat Generation" as a literary motility, with the limited success of his first novel The Town and the Urban center, Kerouac would receive praise in the March 23, 1950 issue of Le Travailleur, from 1 Yvonne Le Maître, one of the New England Francophone customs's near distinguished journalists and critics, who had previously served as a foreign correspondent for The Smart Set, Boston Evening Transcript, and The New Yorker in Paris.[41] [42] [43] Kerouac was and so moved by her largely-positive reception that he wrote her back a alphabetic character describing the influence of his Franco-American upbringing on his writing–[44]

"I never spoke English before I was 6 or 7. At 21 I was still somewhat bad-mannered and illiterate in speech and writing. The reason I handled English language words so easily is because it is not my own language. I refashion it to fit French images."

Although he wouldn't characterize his writing with the handle "Franco-American literature", in later years Kerouac both embraced the Beat Generation handle, and its parallels with the hippie movement, but what he perceived as a abuse of his own view of the "Beats". In an inebriated 1968 interview with William F. Buckley Jr., Kerouac would proclaim to be in favor of law and club, lamenting he believed his ain writing had been co-opted by allies of Allen Ginsberg and Lawrence Ferlinghetti too as a communist-sympathetic press, stating he did not identify as a communist merely wrote every bit a Cosmic, and that he originally would describe the term "Beat" as deriving of the qualities of "the blessed" described in Beatitudes.[45] In 2007 Ferlinghetti himself would besides assert that without Ginsberg, at that place would have been no Crush Generation in concept, but rather Kerouac and his contemporaries may have been described in detached contexts.[46] During his life Kerouac would also apply his fame to interview in French with outlets similar Radio-Canada, commenting extensively on the piece of work of authors like Louis-Ferdinand Céline and his Journey to the End of the Night.[47]

Several miles from Lowell where Kerouac dwelled, up the Merrimac River, hailed Marie Grace DeRepentigny of Manchester, New Hampshire. Born to a broken domicile, and living in poverty for most of her life, she was to become best known by her married proper noun, Grace Metalious. Though of Franco origins, her famous succès de scandale, Peyton Place, did not so explicitly address a rejection of Franco-American life and values as did her 1967 novel No Adam in Eden.[2] : 28–29 The former withal was by far her most famous and contemporarily was described as an American novel rather than an instance of ethnic literature. By some metrics it became the bestselling American novel up until that time, selling nine.6 1000000 copies in its first decade on shelves.[48]

Though her books were successful, they were also seen as a scandal in themselves for their debaucherous and taboo themes, depicting premarital sex and infidelity, standing in contrast with Catholic traditions and other works of La Survivance.[49] While Metalious sought to altitude herself from her indigenous upbringing, in contempo years, her work has been embraced in the context of her heritage by groups like the Franco-American Women's Constitute in Brewster, Maine.[l] [51] [52] In her most famous work, Metalious offered no praise for the Franco community's Catholicism, made no mention of La belle province, the French-language, or whatever of its associated cultural institutions. In her latter work, No Adam in Eden, Metalious would yet draw more from her heritage, albeit in the same negative light. Despite a posthumous embrace of her work past other literary critics, in his paper on Kerouac and Metalious every bit Franco-American authors, history professor Richard Sorrell summed Metalious's views every bit–[52]

In issue, No Adam in Eden says there is no hope within ane's nationality but it is as useless to endeavour to rise outside of the group. This life which she led showed that such communication was no more useful in reality than in fiction. Francos may take middle, at least, from the fact that her unhappiness seemed more a function of deficiencies in her indigenous rearing than the inevitable result of trying to maintain survivance in New England.

Echoing in some ways the motifs of Ducharme's The Delusson Family, Gérard Robichaud'southward Papa Martel represented a deviation from the melancholic overtones of the mainstream authors of this era. A serial of English-language short stories that have since been described equally definitive Maine literature, Papa Martel portrays the Franco American family as accommodating, betwixt French-Canadian Habitant civilization and the assimilative influence of postwar America.[33] Though never attaining national fame, the book was widely successful in New England, specially Maine. In 1985 it would be adapted into a play by the Lewiston-based Maine Acting Company,[53] and in 2000 the Baxter Literary Society of Portland named it one of the state's 100 most influential books.[54] Similarly, though less famous or fictional, was the 1954 Every bit I Alive and Dream past Gertrude Coté; a memoir of family unit history which enjoyed success in her native Maine, it was also written in English language, accessible to wider audience.[55] [56]

During this menstruation, the French language was absent in New England's published works, and by the 1960s, assimilation and anti-French laws had begun to reduce its prevalence. Though at that place remained ongoing efforts to maintain bilingualism within government bodies similar Maine'south Section of Teaching, even as an asset, ultimately with the refuse of the French printing and consolidation of media, such efforts saw piddling success.[57]

Revival era and contemporary works [edit]

While the third generation of Franco-American authors had in some sense finally reached a national audition outside the trappings of literary regionalism, it had become removed from its source fabric, and bilingualism had, for several decades, given way solely to English language. Remarking on the rarity of novels in French and how long it had been since anything but French poetry had been added, one literary critic later remarked "[t]he harvest is rather lean and interspersed with worrying years of famine, a phenomenon that can be explained in large part by the obstacles to exist overcome in order to edit works in French in the Usa."[58] In an increasingly centralized mass media environment, the individual market for French-language publishing in New England had eroded considerably, and only a scattering of publishers remained of the dozens of newspapers which once abounded.[4] : 100 For this reason the Franco-American literature of the menstruum went in two dissimilar directions. Those who had acculturated into the American mainstream congenital on the legacy of the third generation in English, such as critically-acclaimed author Robert Cormier and his successful young adult novels, The Chocolate War and I Am the Cheese.

Examples of novels republished by the National Materials Development Centre for French and Creole, as a office of the United States Department of Wellness, Education, and Welfare's bilingual education programs. Left to right: Bélanger– Ou fifty'histoire d'united nations crime by Georges Crépeau, Mirbah past Emma Dumas, Canuck by Camille Lessard, and Sanatorium past Dr. Paul DuFault.

Yet the 1970s and 1980s would see a brief revival in bilingual Franco American literature thanks to federal back up in education. In 1974 Congress amended the Unproblematic and Secondary Educational activity Act (ESEA) to include an expanded mandate for bilingual educational activity, which included the funding of what would ultimately become 14 regional "material development centers", creating textbooks and other volumes to further expand on language classes in public schools.[59] Amid these was the National Materials Evolution Center for French and Creole,[c] based out of Bedford and afterward Manchester, New Hampshire. From 1975 until 1982, Franco American literature was made bachelor to a new generation through a number of reprints of novels individually, specially from the feuilleton era, every bit well as the development of textbooks like A Franco-American Overview, which included history of French Americans both in New England every bit well as beyond the United states in eight volumes. Similarly the grouping would also print Richard Santerre's compiled Anthologie de la littérature franco-américaine de la Nouvelle-Angleterre ("Album of the Franco-American Literature of New England"), which would include fictional works by Honoré Beaugrand, Louis Dantin, Rosaire Dion-Lévesque [fr], Edouard Fecteau, Camille Lessard-Bissonnette, Yvonne Le Maître, Emma Dumas, and Anna Duval-Thibault, among others. Funded through the US Department of Education's Office of Bilingual Pedagogy, the NMDC continued to exist a publishing firm of Franco-American works until 1982, when changes in federal expenditures ultimately forced it to close.[60] Among the final works of the National Materials Development Heart, was the 1983 publication of L'Heritage by Robert Perreault. The outset French-language Franco-American novel written in the Usa in half a century,[61] : 178 working with the theme of revival, the novel takes place during the late 1960s at the height of the Vietnam War, and is centered on a female protagonist reconnecting with her cultural heritage through her grandmother's property.[62] [33] [63] Though not in pursuit of a degree, Perrault'due south piece of work would be afterward described as a "thesis novel", revisiting earlier themes of indigenous identity within the ideals of Americanism.[64] While the NMDC had been defunded by the fourth dimension of Perreault's work, the University of New Hampshire would ultimately make available resources to allow its staff and publishers to continue for some period post-obit its defunding.[65]

More recent authors like Robert Cormier, John Dufresne, Ernest Hébert, Dorianne Laux, Howard Frank Mosher, Cathie Pelletier, David Plante, Annie Proulx are among those of the contemporary era whose work spans the genre, with branching out into more universal themes, and others cartoon on the influence of previous authors in the genre'south literary tradition examining Americanism and identity.

Motifs [edit]

A common motif across near all Franco-American novels until those of the contemporary era, was la survivance. In her history of Franco-American literature, Sister Marie-Carmel Therriault noted the French linguistic communication appeared in some regard as a graphic symbol in its own correct: a language protected by those of exiles who live in harmony with Quebec, mainly journalists involved in the struggle for the promotion and survival of the French in North America.[26] Some of the subject matter focuses on specifically the problems facing Franco-Americans equally a group, while other volumes offered more personal anecdotes. Therriault however would also lament that the collective nature of the genre upwardly through the Interwar flow was also to its detriment– "[These works contain] few or no crises of heart; the intimate drama has no place. The heroes seek to a higher place all to acclimatize to a new kind of life, that of the immigrant in American land."[66] [d] Reacting positively to the fame of the melancholic Kerouac and Metalious, Papa Martel author Gérard Robichaud later remarked that, in a higher place all, Franco-American writers, should stop repeating the same themes in their works, among others, of emigration and assimilation, to deal more with universal themes, while retaining a certain indigenous perspective.[67]

While Jeanne la Fileuse was a social novel of its day, discussing the issues of labor and grade, the Franco-American novel has also typified the historical novel both in regional and national contexts. Examples include Mirbah, set during the Precious Blood Church building fire, every bit well as the Civil War novel, Un Revenant, and the revivalist L'Heritage, depicting the attitudes of American youth during the Vietnam War.[63] [6]

Some other examples of divergent attitudes constitute between Franco-American and Yankee or Anglo-American literature include contrasts such as the post-obit from taken from Vivian Parsons's Lucien-[3]

Category Franco-American Anglo-American
Faith Social dominance by church No dominance by church but Protestant piece of work ethic
Historical Perspective Explorers; dispossessed diaspora Pioneers; institutional founders
Orientation to Tasks The means, the process The goal, its completion
Personal Identity Collectivistic/Familial Individualistic
Relation to Nature Accepting/Harmonizing Mastering/Dominating
Public Self Exuberant Restrained/Relaxed
Political Tradition Union of Church and State Separation of Church building and State
Attitude to Work Work is "personal" and an ongoing duty Piece of work is toward gains and accomplishment

Critiques [edit]

Absence in literary markets [edit]

While bilingual counterparts of Latino literature have, in fourth dimension, been able to capitalize on their position as a culture of others, as well as find a literary market which embraced their otherism, in contrast, with the exception of Jeanne de Fileuse across borders, the genre's first counterpart, few Franco-American novels have truly found place in literature that transcended their identify of origin. In contrast, those who did, such as Jack Kerouac or Grace Metalious, and later on Cathie Pelletier and Robert Cormier, did so every bit part of other literary movements— distinct from Franco American literature simply clearly shaped by information technology.[68] In his work on the genre as a whole critic Armand Chartier noted that although Kerouac'due south work, for instance, was shaped by "his French-Catholic upbringing...to an amazing caste", however he noted "even [Kerouac's] journeys beguile the coureur de bois, the French-Canadian version of the eternally restless nomad."[two] In contrast with Chartier's opinions of Kerouac and Papa Martel's writer Gérard Robichaud, during a briefing on Franco American literature, Robichaud lauded the piece of work of Jack Kerouac, noting he was able to carve out an international reputation for himself by demonstrating an openness of listen in his writings, going beyond solely the theme of survivance.[67] Indeed, up until the Tertiary Generation, Franco-American literature focused less on characters and more on the documented collective, with Sis Carmel noting in her critical history that most such novels through the Interwar Menstruum dwelled the study of the life of the regional communities in social novels, rather than the struggles of protagonists.[66]

Ultimately, virtually examples of Franco-American literature represented American literary regionalism with some exceptions. Funk and Wagnall's would selection upwardly Jacques Ducharme's The Delusson Family unit in 1939, the first Franco-American novel in English, and the offset published for a national audience. Though never earning enough to financially sustain its author, information technology proved to be a modest success equally a selection of the Catholic Book Social club of the Jesuit mag America.[66] [69] [lxx] [71] At the time of its publication however, Ducharme noted those at his publisher Harper, in New York City, were completely unaware of a French presence, in language or civilisation, in New England, despite being within a morning'south bulldoze of numerous Franco-American institutions.[seventy] Another early on example in the broader definition of the genre was Lucien past Vivian Parsons, set in Michigan and published months earlier Ducharme's work past Dodd, Mead & Co.[three] [72] Decades afterward Doubleday would allow Robichaud's Papa Martel to become out of print for several decades, but the book would remain popular in the culture of Maine and was later named one of 100 near influential Maine books by the Baxter Literary Society of Portland in 2000.[54]

Despite being an indigenous and linguistic minority, past 1943 historian and writer Jacques Ducharme amassed a library of 400 books written and published by Franco-Americans, including near 50 volumes of poetry and prose, notwithstanding the fact that the population, including its writers, represented millworkers, meant they were not tied to the literary world in caste nor conventions.[73] : 134–135 [seventy] While writing his dissertation on the subject of Franco-American novels, historian Richard Santerre noted in that location were few examples of many titles that were publicly available, with some similar Duval-Thibault's Les Deux Testaments having sole examples extant in individual collections. With many feuilleton titles being solely in French-language newspapers or paperback pamphlets, few copies of the genre remained in circulation, even while records of their titles remain known today.[29] : 7 While Santerre and the NMDC would attempt to rectify this by republishing a number of rare volumes through the 1970s, because of their educational mission rather than commercial, many of the genre's foundational works, including those in Santerre'southward ix-volume anthologie never saw nationwide distribution.[60]

Relation to New England and Quebec literature [edit]

"Franco-American literature" has been differentiated from Yankee New England literature, and Quebec literature by some definitions, but contradictorily is a term which intersects with both. In the 20th century, some of the earliest opinions of critics remained divided on whether such works could be considered their own genre. The French-Canadian writer Louis Dantin, living in Boston for years while publishing literature in Quebec, would once simply posit "at that place is no Franco-American literature and there never will be."[74] In that location was some shift in Dantin's attitude in his later years, but only to a signal. In reviewing The Delusson Family in the July 1939 consequence of Le Jour, Dantin would use the term "Franco-American" to frame the novel, but would also inquire of author Jacques Ducharme, "has he come up to the point of taking function in the intellectual life, in the literature of his adopted soil?"[75] : 27–28 [due east] And even as Ducharme was criticized as a traitor for writing his debut volume in English, he would recount pessimistically in French before a briefing of the Société Historique Franco-Américaine— "Let us count our poets today. I know four or 5. Our novelists. There are not whatever. Historians, yep, there are, but then far no 1 has dared to write a general history of Franco-Americans. It is always local history that concerns u.s.a., every bit well as French Canadians..."[lxx] [f]

To some caste, Franco Americans embraced French-Canadian folklore, including Jos Montferrand, whose story included a purported stint working for the Amoskeag Manufacturing Visitor of Manchester, and whose name was also synonymous with force amidst émigrés as it was in Québec; to say one was strong through the mid-20th century was to say "C'est un Jos Montferrand." [73] : 165 Honoré Beaugrand, who would spend his formative literary years in New England, is not only credited for the get-go Franco novel, but later wrote the all-time-known version of La Chasse-galerie. Nevertheless, Franco American literary tastes, peculiarly those of the late 19th and early 20th century, were in some ways influenced by France more than Canada, as Jacques Ducharme would annotation–[73] : 218–220

All this [cultural propaganda from France] had its salutary result, all the same, for information technology brought the Franco-Americans back to the source of their genius— French republic. Relations with Canada had been largely those of family and friends. French-Canadian literature never enjoyed any great vogue in New England; if one consults the feuilletons in newspapers, this is plain shown, for the majority are by French authors. Only French-Canadian poesy made whatsoever impression on the émigrés.

Some works have been embraced by critics and proponents of the handle; the first "roman franco-américain" Jeanne de fileuse was ane of the few to transcend cultural boundaries both a seminal work in Quebec literature for its writer and the foundation of the Franco-American novel for its place of publication and subject thing.[sixteen] [76] In more than recent decades the novel has been viewed less as the social commentary it represented at the time of its writing, but rather every bit a defining piece of literature in the contend of what Franco-American literature is and is non— whether Franco literature is simply an extension of Quebec literature or a genre singled-out in its ain.[xv] In some cases the works of Franco-American authors would depict the emigration to New England as temporary. In The Delusson Family, at that place is a sense of permanency, while in Mill Village the respective family unit of the novel returns to Quebec.[77] Another prominent case of overlap between the two genres also include books like Thirty Acres (Trente arpents), considered one of the most influential romans du terror ("rural novels") in Quebec literature, it is also a commentary on the industrialization of New England. The son of its protagonist abandons the family'southward 30 acres of farmland to seek a new life working in cloth mills in America, and ultimately expresses doubts as to the ability for such Québecois identities to remain in the country'southward Little Canadas, standing in contrast with the optimism of Canuck and Jeanne la Fileuse.[78] Critics have also differentiated pre-World War 2 Franco-American literature every bit an extension of Quebec literature for their focus on La Survivance, while a general departure from this has been noted in mail-war literature, as well as the utilize of English language rather than French, while Quebec literature is, by its own definition, French-linguistic communication literature.[74]

In New England literature, the French remained excluded to a degree in a fashion the Irish gaelic initially were, as Catholics, and ergo outsiders not allowed into Protestant institutions for generations.[3] While Franco American literature has been included in bibliographies of New England literature,[79] numerous portrayals of Francophones in Anglo literature would depict them with certain derision. Vermont author Rowland Robinson would make such characters stereotypes of cowardice, with an disability to regard themselves as Americans. Similarly in his Yankee classic, Spiked Boot, novelist Robert Due east. Pike would depict Franco-Americans as deferent to any authorization and docile, lacking initiative.[eighty] In contrast, while Henry David Thoreau indeed bears a surname that is French, his ancestry was that of Huguenots, and thus he was of New England'due south Protestant culture and thus New England literature. A New England author of French descent, but not a figure of the Franco American literary movement.[81] In dissimilarity Huguenot-descended New England writer Sarah Orne Jewett expressed a certain solidarity with her Cosmic neighbors, featuring a Franco-American family unit, the Bowdens, in her about notable work The State of the Pointed Firs. While she portrays the family equally having Americanized and speaking the New England English vernacular of Maine, their customs, also as those of Mrs. Captain Tolland in her story The Foreigner (1900) are unmistakably Catholic and Franco-American.[82]

Notable works [edit]

Left to right: Encompass of the first edition of Manufacturing plant Village, by Alberic A. Archambault; Anthologie de la poésie Franco-Américaine de la Nouvelle-Angleterre, compiled past Paul Chassé for the American Bicentennial, it represents the nearly complete collection of Franco-American verse, with numerous examples in New England French

Although lesser-known feuilletons and novels abound, a number of novels of both American and Canadian origin, published initially in French and subsequently in English, have consistently characterized the handle "Franco-American literature".[two] [29]

Title Author Yr Language
Jeanne la Fileuse Honoré Beaugrand 1875[k] French
Un Revenant Rémi Tremblay 1884 French
Mirbah Emma Dumas 1910[h] French
Canuck Camille Lessard-Bissonnette 1936 French
Sanatorium Paul Dufault 1938 French
The Delusson Family Jacques Ducharme 1939 English
Factory Village Albéric A. Archambault 1943 English
The Town and the City Jack Kerouac 1950 English
Les Enfances de Fanny Louis Dantin 1951 French
Peyton Place Grace Metalious 1956 English language
Papa Martel Gérard Robichaud 1961 English
The Family David Plante 1978 English language
Where the Rivers Flow Northward Howard Frank Mosher 1978 English
L'Heritage Robert B. Perreault 1983 French

Meet also [edit]

  • Quebec literature
  • New England literature
  • Literature of Louisiana
  • History of the Franco-Americans
  • New England French

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Original in French: "trop souvent les feuilletons sortis de la plume d'écrivains français nous offrent une peinture de moeurs différentes sinon inconnues à la plupart de nos lecteurs. Quand on nous parle du grand monde parisien, de la vie des nobles ou des filous des capitales européennes, on peut à peine saisir toutes les nuances et comprendre tous les mobiles de ces êtres factices. Dans LES DEUX TESTAMENTS, au contraire, on ne voit que des scènes de la vie canadienne; c'est chez nous, avec tout ce que ce mot contient de signification et de souvenirs..."
  2. ^ Original in French: "50'influence du roman de Jacques Ducharme, The Delusson Family, est cependant moins hypothétique. En fait, The Town and the City peut se lire comme son extension, comme une variante du même genre. Quoique la routine quotidienne des Delusson distingue ce récit du climat d'angoisse et d'aliénation qui règne chez les Martin de Kerouac, certains éléments du roman de Ducharme suggèrent qu'il a pu inspirer Kerouac."
  3. ^ Also sometimes referred to as the National Development Center for French and Portuguese
  4. ^ Original in French: Peu ou bespeak de crises d'âmes; le drame intime north'y a pas sa place. Les héros cherchent avant tout à s'acclimater à un nouveau genre de vie, celui de 50'émigré en terre américaine.
  5. ^ Original in French: "En est-il arrivé au signal de prendre role à la vie intellectuelle, à la littérature de son sol adoptif?"
  6. ^ Original in French: "Que faisons-nous? Nous végétons. Nous dormons sur nos lauriers. Je ne parle pas des écoles, mais plutôt de notre vie artistique et littéraire. Comptons nos poètes d'aujourd'hui. J'en connais quatre ou cinq. Nos romanciers. Il north y en a pas. Historiens, oui, il y en a, mais jusqu'ici personne ne s'est avisé de faire une histoire générale des Franco-Américains. C'est toujours 50'histoire locale qui nous préoccupe, ainsi que les Canadiens français..."
  7. ^ The first Franco-American novel in the mail-migration era, printed serially in La République in Autumn River, Massachusetts; published as a separate volume in 1878.[83]
  8. ^ Originally published serially in La Justice in Holyoke, Massachusetts under the nom de plume "Emma Port-Joli".

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b Lee, Sonia (Summer 1978). "Two Franco-American Writers: Dantin and Dion-Lévesque". MELUS. Oxford University Press/The Society for the Written report of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States (MELUS). Five (2): 25–32. doi:10.2307/467457. JSTOR 467457 – via JSTOR.
  2. ^ a b c d due east f Chartier, Armand B. (1983). "Franco-American Literature: The New England Feel". In Di Pietro, Robert J.; Ifkovic, Edward (eds.). Ethnic Perspectives in American Literature: Selected Essays on the European Contribution. New York: The Modern Language Clan of America. pp. 15–43.
  3. ^ a b c d Daziel, Bradford Dudley (Oct 7, 1977). Franco-American Fiction: Isolation versus Assimilation in New England (Thesis). University of Vermont – via University of Southern Maine Digital Eatables.
  4. ^ a b c d Brault, Gerard J. (1986). The French Canadian Heritage in New England. Hanover, Due north.H.: University Press of New England. ISBN9780874513592.
  5. ^ "French Connections : A Gathering of Franco-American Poets". Franco American Library/Bibliothèque Franco-Américaine. Academy of Maine. Retrieved December 24, 2020.
  6. ^ a b Chassé, Paul P.; Bouygues, Claude (1978). "How Elitist Were Franco American Authors in New England?". Contemporary French Culture. Liverpool University Press. 3 (1): 111–123. doi:x.3828/cfc.1978.iii.1.008.
  7. ^ a b Nelson Madore; Barry H. Rodrigue (2007). Voyages: A Maine Franco-American Reader. Thomaston, Me.: Tilbury House. p. 268. The two strongest feuilletons written by Franco-New Englanders, Jeanne la fileuse (Jeanne the Spinner) and Canuck, merit attention today.
  8. ^ Born, Warren C. (1976). Language and Culture: Heritage and Horizons. Majuscule City Printing. p. 38. ISBN9780915432769. Beaugrand'due south Jeanne la Fileuse," the first Franco-American novel, depicts a typical state of affairs.
  9. ^ Belisle, Alexandre (1911). Histoire de la presse Franco-Américaine et des Canadiens-Français aux États-Unis (in French). Worcester, Mass.: L'Opinion Publique.
  10. ^ a b Albert, Renaud Southward.; Martin, Andre; Giguere, Madeleine; Allain, Mathe; Brasseaux, Carl A. (May 1979). A Franco-American Overview (PDF). Vol. I. Cambridge, Mass.: National Assessment and Dissemination Center, Lesley College; U.s. Department of Education – via Education Resources Data Eye (ERIC).
  11. ^ Thernstrom, Stephan (1980). "French-Canadians". Harvard encyclopedia of American ethnic groups. Cambridge, Mass.: Belkap Printing. p. 397. ISBN9780674375123.
  12. ^ a b Ricard, François (1994). "Beaugrand, Honoré". Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Academy of Toronto/Université Laval.
  13. ^ Andrew N. Wegmann; Robert Englebert, eds. (2020). French Connections: Cultural Mobility in North America and the Atlantic Earth, 1600–1875. Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State Press. p. 237. ISBN9780807174562.
  14. ^ Lemaire, Hervé (May 1979). Madeleine Giguère (ed.). A Franco-American Overview (PDF). Vol. IV. Cambridge, Mass.: National Assessment and Dissemination Center, Lesley College; US Department of Education – via Didactics Resource Information Center (ERIC).
  15. ^ a b Shanahan, Brendan (2011). "The Several Lives of Joan the Spinner" (PDF). Journal of Transnational American Studies. UC Santa Barbara. III (ii).
  16. ^ a b Chartier, Armand B. (2019). Hero Jr., Alfred O.; Daneau, Marcel (eds.). Problems and Opportunities in U.S.–Quebec Relations. New York: Routledge. p. 146. ISBN9781000308228.
  17. ^ "Reviews". British Journal of Canadian Studies. Liverpool: Liverpool Academy Press. Xviii (1): 203. May 2005.
  18. ^ Michaud, Charlotte; Janelle, Adelard (1974). "Their Origins and Early History". In Lewiston Historical Committee (ed.). Celebrated Lewiston: Franco-American Origins. Auburn, Me.: Primal Main Vocational Technical Establish. p. 25. Archived from the original on Nov two, 2020. Le Messager, a paper printed in French, was established by these people in 1880, and information technology lasted until 1966...Its columns always featured a 'feuilleton' or serial story usually of romantic import that captivated the women of that day equally much as today's television operas.
  19. ^ Anctil, Pierre (1991). "Brokers of Ethnic Identity the Franco-American Petty Bourgeoisie of Woonsocket, Rhode Isle (1865-1945)". Quebec Studies. American Quango for Québec Studies; Liverpool Academy Press. XII (i): 41. With virtually no exception, La Tribune would commission a novelist or writer of some talent to produce an eposodic story chosen a 'feuilleton,' to exist published to be published over a period of many weeks or months.
  20. ^ Therriault, Marie-Carmel (1946). La Littérature française de Nouvelle-Angleterre (in French). Montréal: Fides/Université Laval.
  21. ^ Poteet, Maurice (Spring 1980). "Review of [Une réédition : les Deux Testaments, d'Anna-Marie Duval-Thibault]" (PDF). Lettres québécoises. No. 17. pp. 76–77 – via érudit.
  22. ^ Lacroix, Patrick (March five, 2020). "Women's History Month: The Franco-American Press". Query the Past. Archived from the original on December 23, 2020.
  23. ^ Gerson, Carole (2011). Canadian Women in Print, 1750–1918. Wilfrid Laurier Academy Press. p. 66. ISBN9781554582396.
  24. ^ Fecteau, Edward (1945). "Affiliate Thirteen. Franco-American Writers". French Contributions to America. Methuen, Mass.: Soucy Press; Franco-American Historical Lodge. pp. 299–326.
  25. ^ Lees, Cynthia (Summer 2010). "Performances of Franco-American identity in Mirbah: a portrait of Precious Blood parish". Quebec Studies. American Council for Québec Studies; Liverpool University Press. XLIX.
  26. ^ a b Pacini, Peggy (January 2007). "Presence Visible et Invisible de la Langue Française Dans la Litterature Franco-Américaine Contemporaine" (PDF). Glottopol (in French). Université Rouen (9): 138–150. Archived from the original (PDF) on July xiii, 2020.
  27. ^ Adolphe Robert, ed. (1938). La Croisade Franco-américaine; Deuxieme Congres de la Langue Francaise Québec 27 juin au 1er juillet 1937. Compte rendu de la participation des Franco-Américains. Publié par Les Comités Régionaux des États-Unis et le Secrétarial Adjoint. Manchester, North. H.: L'Avenir National.
  28. ^ "Les Livres". Le Canada-français: 1000. June 1939 – via Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Quebec.
  29. ^ a b c Santerre, Richard Robert (1974). Le Roman Franco-Américain en Nouvelle-Angleterre, 1878–1943 (Ph.D.). Boston College. OCLC 3043922.
  30. ^ Dufault, Paul. "The Evolution of the Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis at the Rutland State Sanatorium". New England Journal of Medicine. Boston, Mass.: Massachusetts Medical Lodge. CCXXI: 374–379.
  31. ^ "Paul DUFAULT (1894-1969)". Dictionnaire des auteurs franco-américains de langue française (in French). Worcester, Mass.: Assumption Higher. Archived from the original on November 20, 2020.
  32. ^ Côté, Louise (2000). "En garde!":les représentations de la tuberculose au Québec dans la première moitié du XXe siècle (in French). Presses de l'Université Laval. p. 189 – via Google Books.
  33. ^ a b c d Aubé, Mary Elizabeth; Frenette, Yves (1992). "Le difficile accommodement : culture paysanne et changement socioculturel dans Papa Martel". Francophonies d'Amérique (in French). Les Presses de fifty'Université d'Ottawa (2): 201–208. doi:10.7202/1004423ar.
  34. ^ Morency, Jean (Winter 2013). "Les enfances de Fanny: united nations roman américain". Voix et Images (in French). Université du Québec à Montreal. XXXVIII (2): 59–71. doi:10.7202/1015165ar – via érudit.
  35. ^ Bernard, Harry (1949). Le roman régionaliste aux États-Unis, 1913-1940 (in French). Montréal: Fides. pp. 64–65.
    • Identité Culturelle et Francophonie dans les Amériques (PDF). Vol. Iii. Quebec City, QC: International Heart for Research on Bilingualism, Université Laval. p. 75 – via Instruction Resource Information Center (ERIC). Le premier roman Franco - Americana ecrit cascade le grand public americain fut The Delusson Family par Jacques Ducharme, ancien redacteur de La Justice de Holyoke, Massachusetts. Ce roman nous raconte 50'histoire de l'clearing et de fifty'kablissement de la famille Delusson dans un centre industrial de la Nouvelle-Angleterre. Le roman fut un chiliad succes chez les libraires. [The first Franco-American novel written for the general public in America was The Delusson Family by Jacques Ducharme, sometime editor of La Justice of Holyoke, Massachusetts. This novel tells united states the story of clearing and the institution of Delusson family in a New England industrial center. The novel was a great success with booksellers.]
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  37. ^ Miles, Barry (1998). Jack Kerouac, Male monarch of the Beats: A Portrait. New York: H. Holt. pp. 161–162.
  38. ^ Groulx, Lionel (September 1949). "Forget, Ulysse, One thousand.D., Les Franco-américains et le " Melting Pot " et Onomastique franco-américaine. Bro. 52 pages". Revue d'Histoire de l'Amérique Française. III (two): 280. doi:10.7202/801562ar.
  39. ^ Chassé, Paul P., ed. (1976). Anthologie de la poésie Franco-Américaine de la Nouvelle-Angleterre (in English and French). Providence, R.I.: Rhode Isle Bicentennial Commission.
  40. ^ Barkan, Elliott Robert (2001). "Kerouac, Jean-Louis 'Jack'". Making It in America: A Sourcebook on Eminent Indigenous Americans. ABC-CLIO. p. 174.
  41. ^ Mellehy, Hassan (2012). "Jack Kerouac and the Nomadic Cartographies of Exile". In Jennie Skerl; N. Grace (eds.). The Transnational Beat Generation. Springer, Palgrave Macmillan. p. 31.
  42. ^ "Yvonne LE MAITRE (1876-1954)". Dictionnaire des auteurs franco-américains de langue française (in French). Worcester, Mass.: Assumption College. Archived from the original on January 11, 2020.
  43. ^ Lacroix, Michel; Zurek, Nadia (September 14, 2011). "Une journaliste franco-américaine au seuil de l'advanced : fifty'espace des possibles d'Yvonne Le Maître (1876-1954)". Recherches féministes (in French). XXIV (ane): 77–99. doi:10.7202/1006078ar – via érudit.
  44. ^ Dickson, Robert (Autumn 1987). "Of books and men: Ti-Jean, Patrice, Robert et les autres..." (PDF). Liaison. No. 44. pp. 5–six.
  45. ^ William F. Buckley Jr., Jack Kerouac. Firing Line with William F. Buckley Jr.: The Hippies. Upshot occurs at eight:25. Run into Ginsberg and I, nosotros're all in our forties and we started this, and the kids took information technology up and everything. Simply a lot of hoods, hoodlums, and Communists jumped on our backs. Well, on my back, not his. Ferlinghetti jumped on my dorsum and turned the idea that I had that the "Beat Generation" was a generation of beatitude, and pleasure in life, and tenderness, but they chosen information technology in the papers, "Vanquish Wildcat", "Beat out Coup." Words I never used. Being a Catholic, I believe in order, tenderness, and piety.
  46. ^ Amy Goodman, Lawrence Ferlinghetti (26 March 2019). Iconic Beat Generation Bookseller & Poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti Turns 100. Democracy Now. Effect occurs at 21:48 – via Youtube. [Ginsberg] was also a genius poet and a genius publicist. I feel that without Allen Ginsberg in that location would not have been any "Vanquish Generation" recognized as such, it would just have been great separate writers in the landscape, but Allen, he created the whole affair himself.
  47. ^ Jack Kerouac parle de Céline. Radio-Canada. 1959 – via Youtube.
  48. ^ Willis, Robert Clive, ed. (1969). "Metalious, Grace (1924–1964)". Twentieth Century Writing: A Reader's Guide to Contemporary Literature. Newnes. p. 420. Her all-time-known novel Peyton Place (1956) had sold 9,600,000 copies past 1965, to become the best-selling novel of all time.
  49. ^ Neuhaus, Cable (September 28, 1981). "25 Years After Peyton Identify, Her New Hampshire Town has not Forgiven Grace Metalious". People. Vol. Sixteen, no. thirteen. Archived from the original on February 14, 2018.
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  56. ^ Dion-Lévesque, Rosaire (1957). "Mme Gertrude Coté; de Rumford, Maine". Silhouettes franco-américaines. Manchester, N.H.: Association Canado-Américaine. pp. 170–174.
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Farther reading [edit]

  • Chassé, Paul P., ed. (1976). Anthologie de la poésie Franco-Américaine de la Nouvelle-Angleterre (in English and French). Providence, R.I.: Rhode Isle Bicentennial Commission.
  • Daziel, Bradford Dudley (October 7, 1977). Franco-American Fiction: Isolation versus Assimilation in New England (Thesis). University of Vermont – via Academy of Southern Maine Digital Eatables.
  • Fecteau, Edward (1945). "Chapter XIII. Franco-American Writers". French Contributions to America. Methuen, Mass.: Soucy Printing; Franco-American Historical Order. pp. 299–326.
  • Pinette, Susan (2012). La Langue est gardienne': French language and Identity in Franco-American Literature (Thesis). Orono, Me.: Franco-American Middle, University of Maine.
  • Poteet, Maurice, ed. (1987). "III. Textes Littéraires". Textes de 50'exode : recueil de textes sur l'émigration des Québécois aux États-Unis, XIXe et XXe siècles (in French). Montréal: Editeur Guérin Ltée.
  • Quintal, Claire (1992). La littérature franco-américaine: écrivains et écritures (in French). Worcester, Mass.: Institut français, Collège de l'Assomption – via HathiTrust.
  • Therriault, Marie-Carmel (1946). La Littérature française de Nouvelle-Angleterre (in French). Montréal: Fides/Université Laval.
  • Cote Robbins, Rhea (2014). Franco-American Women: The Literary Situation and the Deprivation of Story for the Generations--By, Present and Time to come--Who Stands to Lose (Thesis). Orono, Me.: University of Maine.

External links [edit]

  • Literary Works--Fiction, Franco American Library/Bibliothèque Franco-Américaine, University of Maine
  • Franco-American Women's Institute, Franco-American Women'southward Institute
  • Franco-American Writers-Composers, The Franco-American Connection
  • Resonance, a bilingual Franco-American literary journal, UMaine

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco_American_literature

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